Library and Information Science Research

Library and Information Science Research

“Complexity” and “Difficulty” of Questions in Research Consultations: Predictability and Identification of Features (A systematic review)

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Mariam Keshvari 1
Monireh Shakeri Far 2
1 Assistant Professor, Department of Knowledge and Information Science, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
2 PhD Candidate in Knowledge and Information Science, AlZahra University, Tehran, Iran
10.22067/infosci.2026.95492.1254
Abstract
Purpose: Research consultation has emerged as a modern and indispensable responsibility of librarians, particularly those in academic settings. The importance of this role has been underscored to the extent that the sustainability of academic libraries is frequently contingent upon the provision of research consultation services. Central to the efficacy of research consultation is the concept of the “question.” According to the extant literature, only questions characterized as both “complex” and “difficult” necessitate research consultation; such questions are often referred to in various sources as “ill-structured problems.” Nevertheless, considerable ambiguities persist within this area of inquiry. Notably, the information science literature—especially within the domain of reference services—has not clearly delineated between the constructs of “difficulty” and “complexity.” Furthermore, no explicit or consensually accepted criteria or attributes have been established to identify such questions. In light of this gap, the present systematic review seeks to investigate the feasibility of librarians predicting question difficulty and complexity prior to the initiation of a consultation, as well as to identify the defining features of such questions as they emerge both during and after research consultations.
Methods: This study employed a qualitative approach alongside a systematic review methodology. The research corpus comprised 26 relevant sources, which were identified and analyzed in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines.
Findings: Broadly speaking, three subfields within information science have addressed the difficulty and complexity of reference questions: (a) reference and information services, (b) information-seeking behavior, and (c) information retrieval. Among these, reference and information services alongside information-seeking behavior have concentrated on complex and challenging questions with the objective of facilitating interviews and research consultations. In contrast, the field of information retrieval adopts a somewhat distinct focus and serves a broader, more heterogeneous target population—frequently referred to collectively as “searchers.” Consequently, literature from the latter domain was excluded from the present study.
This review aimed to address two primary research questions. The first examined whether librarians are able to predict the difficulty and complexity of questions prior to conducting research consultations. Findings indicate that no strong correlation exists between librarians’ predicted assessments of question difficulty and complexity and the actual levels observed. In essence, anticipating the difficulty of questions for research consultation appears to be a challenging endeavor in itself, one that necessitates librarians’ active engagement with the questions and the implementation of pre-consultation interviews. The level of librarians’ experience emerged as a key factor emphasized across multiple studies, suggesting that, when interpreted with caution, librarian experience may help determine the difficulty and complexity of questions posed for research consultation purposes. With respect to the second research question—pertaining to the characteristics of difficult and complex questions—a review of the literature revealed that several classification models for reference questions, including those proposed by Katz (2002), Warner (2001), and Garlick and Berard (2010), have addressed this issue. These models position reference questions along a continuum ranging from simple and easy to complex and difficult. However, an analysis of these models indicates that the characteristics of difficult and complex questions are primarily examined either during or after the consultation process, with limited attention given to pre-consultation features that could enable prediction. Among the features identified as critical for challenging questions within these classification models, the time required to respond, as well as the diversity and number of sources consulted, are particularly emphasized. Furthermore, within the body of related literature that addresses question complexity and difficulty, the relevant characteristics are generally classifiable into two primary categories:

Pre-Consultation Features: these enclude the timing of the question’s receipt within the library context (i.e., inquiries submitted outside standard operating hours and those received during the mid-semester period); The intrinsic characteristics of the question itself (including its length, the number of conceptual elements it contains, the number of constituent components, and its degree of ill-structuredness); The librarian’s profile (including educational qualifications, professional experience and domain-specific expertise, and level of interest in the subject matter); The library’s institutional capacity (including the availability of informational resources and the presence or absence of a dedicated research consultation service); The questioner’s background (specifically their educational history and level of academic attainment)
Features During and After Consultation: The key determinants encompass the duration of the consultation process—frequently identified as the most critical factor—alongside the number and diversity of sources utilized, the librarian’s domain knowledge, practical experience, and subject expertise, the volume of actions undertaken, the level of interactivity and user engagement achieved, and the overall effectiveness in delivering accurate answers and meaningful guidance.

Discussion and conclusion: Predicting the difficulty and complexity of questions posed by librarians remains a challenging endeavor and requires considerable caution. Nevertheless, several pre-consultation features may serve as useful facilitators and guides for professional judgment. The experience and expertise of librarians are decisive factors both prior to and during consultations. While certain features have been identified as potential indicators of question complexity and difficulty, integrating an initial user interview with these features can yield a more comprehensive and accurate assessment of whether a research consultation is warranted.
Originality: Identifying challenging and complex questions is a crucial competency for librarians, offering substantial potential advantages, including time efficiency, the enhancement of the profession’s scholarly reputation, and improved user satisfaction. This study is one of the first to examine this issue systematically, and its findings provide meaningful insights to support librarians in the delivery of research consultation services.
Keywords
Research consultation
difficult questions
complex questions
reference questions
Subjects
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  • Receive Date 18 September 2025
  • Revise Date 03 December 2025
  • Accept Date 22 April 2026